Tinea pedis- Advances Mycology

Tinea pedis- Advances in Mycology and Pathology

Tinea pedis

Synonyms

                Ring worm of foot or Moccasin foot

Introduction, History and Epidemiology

            Tinea pedis or athlete’s foot is a foot infection caused by fungus. It infects the foot especially in toes. Tinea pedis was first time reported by Whitfield in 1908.

Distribution

            Tinea pedis is common in South-East Asia and in parts of Africa and Australia. The disease is more common in adults and is found around the world affecting both sexes i.e. males and females.

Pathogenesis

            Tinea pedis is thought to be world’s most common dermatophytosis. The prevalence of the Tinea pedis increases with age. The presentation of the Tinea pedis increases with age.  The presentation of the Tinea pedis is dependent on the host’s immune system snd the infecting dermatophyte. All the three generaE.floccosum, Triphyton spp and Microsporum spp are involved in this disease.This disease is also known as ring worm disease because of ring worm structure. Pathogen is active at the site of ringworm. It is common in body where hairs are not present.

Diagnosis

            Tinea pedis affects all ages but more common in adults than in children. The diagnosis of Tinea pedis is confirmed by microscopy and culture of skin scrapings.

Treatments

            Tenia pedis is usually treated with topical antifungal agents but if the treatment is unsuccessful oral antifungal medicines may be considered including terbinafine and triconazole.

Prevention

            The prevention against Tenia pedis should be done. These preventions are:

1. Keep your feet dry and clean.
2. Wear shoes in public places.

Phytohormones assignment Plant Hormones

Phytohormones assignment

Plant Hormones: (Phytohormone)

Definition

Certain chemical produced by plants have profound effect on their subsequent growth and development. Such chemicals are called Plant Hormones or Phytohormone.
Phytohormone are synthesized by plants in minute concentration and exert their effect by activating gene expression or inhibiting enzyme or changing properties of membrane.

Types of Phytohormone

There are five kinds of plant hormones
1. Auxins
2. Gibberellins
3. Cytokinins
4. Abscisic Acid
5. Ethene

1. Auxins 

Discovery 

the first auxin was discovered by Fret Went in 1926.

Chemical Nature 

Indol Acetic Acid (I.A.A)
Indol Acetic Acid (I.B.A)
Nephthalene Acetic Acid (N.A.A)
Site of Synthesis
It is synthesize at the apices of stem and foot, young leaves and young embryo.

Role of Auxin 

i. Cell division and cell enlargement
It stimulate teh cell division and cell enlargement and plant in increase the length of plant.
ii. Initiation of Root
Auxins also initiates development of adventitious roots when applied at the cut base of stem.
iii. Abscission
In mature leaves and fruits when auxin production diminishes, a layer of thin walled cells is formed at the base of petiole and stake of fruit. This layer is called Abscission layer and causes fall of leaves and fruit with slight jerk. 

iv. Growth of FruitAuxins produced in young embryo promotes the growth of fruit.
v. ParthenocarpyUse of auxin helps in producing parthenocarpic or seedless fruits. 
vi. Apical DominanceBesides growth promoting function on Auxin, also has inhibitory effect on growth. Growth of apical bud inhibits growth of lateral buds beneath the stem. This phenomenon is termed as apical dominance removal of apical buds initiates growth of lateral buds with more leaves and axillary bud.
vii. WeedicideAuxins are selective weed killer 2-4 dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (-2-4-D) is used to kill weeds in lawn's and cereal crops.

2. Gibberellins 

DiscoveryGibberellins was discovered by T.Yabuta and I.Hayashu in a fungus called Gibberellins funjikuroi. This fungus causes foolish seedling (Bakanae) disease in rice. In this disease the infected rice seedling elongated and ultimately fallover without producing grains.
Chemical NatureThe chemical nature of Gibberellins is Gibberellins acid 70 types of gibberellins have been discovered.

Role of Gibberellins
i. Cell division and cell enlargementLike auxins Gibberellin also promotes cell division and elongation.
ii. Control of DwarfismGibberellins can control genetic and physiological dwartism plants.
iii. Seed GerminationThey promote the synthesis of a-amylase enzyme is dorman seeds due to the production of this enzyme, the seed starts germination.
iv. ParthenocarpyThese hormones help in the formation of seedless fruit which are called Parthenocarpic fruits.
v. Increase of Crop YieldThe crop yield of sugar can can be increased by the application of gibberellin about 50 tons/ acre.
vi. Formation of Flower and Growth of Pollen TubeThey stimulate flowering and the growth of pollen tubes during fertilization

3. Cytokinins 

DiscoveryCytokinins are discovered by Miller in coconut milk.
Chemical NatureChemically there are two types of cytokinins. 
Kinetin It is found in coconut milk etc.
Zeatin It is found in maize.

Role of Cytokinins
i. Cell DivisionThey initiate rapid cell division only in the presence of auxin.
ii. Delay in SenescenceThey also caused delayed senescence (old age).
iii. Breaking of Seed DormancyThey break seed dormancy and promote fruit development some species.

4. Abscisic Acid (A.B.A) 

In contrast to growth promoting hormones, abscisic acid is growth inhibitor, produced by plants during adverse environment conditions such as drought conditions.

Role of Abscisic Acid 

• It increases dormancy in buds and seeds.

• It causes stomata to close.

• It turn leaf primordia into scale.

5. Ethene 

It is a gas which also acts as a growth inhibitor.

Role of Ethene 

• It triggers ripening of fruits.

• It contributes in leaf abscission and also breaks the dormancy of seeds and buds.

It also initiates flowering in plants e.g. pineapple.

Easiest way of Soil Conversion

SOIL CONSERVATION

            Soil is the cover or top covering of the earth. The protection of soil against loss of it through various sources is known as soil conservation. It is generally concerned with keeping the soil on its place. The stabilization of soil on its pace is called soil conservation. There are various methods of keeping the soil conserved:

1. Soil fertility- Fertile soil should grow plants by which soil is protected from wind and water erosion
2. Crop rotation- It can keep and restore the mineral of soil.
3. Reforestation- It protects the soil from soil erosion.
4. Development of Grass lands- It can hold the soil together.
5. Control of Grazing- The excessive loss of grazing by cattle should be control to keep the soil conserved.
6. Contour Ploughing- The land should be ploughed at right angles to the slopes instead of ploughing up and down the slope. This practice is in hilly areas.
7. Countour Strip Cropping- Heavy rain cause gullying and sheet washing. So we should adopt strips to keep conserved the soil.
8. Terraced cultivation- The slope should be divided in small field called terraces.
9. Fallowing- The method of giving valuable mineral elements especially Nitrogen to the soil. It also keeps the soil conserved.
10. Dam building- It is important to build soil. It shows the level of soil erosion.
11. Gully Control- Gully control should be adopted because fast moving water cut the soil and cause gullying.
12. Control of Wind Erosion-Keeping the soil covered from wind and keeping the soil rough are the methods of conserving soil.

Difference between Relative and Absolute humidity

Difference between Relative and Absolute humidity

Absolute Humidity	Relative Humidity
The actual amount of water vapour in a particular area at a given time is known asAbsolue Humidity	The ratio of actual amount of water vapour in a particular area at a given time is known as Relative Humidity
It is abbreviated as AH	It is abbreviated as RH
Absolute Humidity= Mass of water vapour/ Volume of air	Relative humidity=Actual vapour pressure/Saturation pressure ×100

Agaricus Notes

Agaricus

Scientific classification

Kingdom:                   Fungi

Phylum:                      Basidiomycota

Subphylum:               Agaricomycotina

Class:                          Agaricomycetes

Subclass:                     Agaricomycetidae

Order:                                    Agaricales

Family:                       Agaricaceae

Genus:                        Agaricus

Species:                       A. campestris

Diversity of  Agaricus species with reference to Pakistan

Agaricus augustus                               edible              According to Gardezi et al 1993

Agaricus Campestris                           edible              According to Gardezi et al 1993

Agaricus placomyces                          edible              According to Gardezi et al 1993

Agaricus silvaticus                              edible              According to Gardezi et al 1993

Agaricus silvicola                                edible              According to Gardezi et al 1993

Distribution:-

            Agaricus compestris (Mushroom) is a saprophytic basidiomycetes. It grows on dead organic substances such as rotten log of wood, humus, horse dump or any type of decaying organic matter. They are found abundantly in summer months especially during the rainy weather, it is fairly common in the grassy fields. Being edible, it is freely cultivated in France and some parts of South India. While Agaricus xanthodermus is very common and widely distributed in North America,Europe, West Asia including eastern Anatolia  and Iran, North Africa,  and Southern Africa. It has been introduced into Australia. It occurs in woods, lawns, gardens and hedgerows in autumn. This is a saprobic species.

General Characters of Agaricus

v  Agaricus is a genus of mushrooms containing both edible and poisonous species, with possibly over 300 members worldwide. The genus includes the common ("button") mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) and the field mushroom (Agaricus campestris), the dominant cultivated mushrooms of the West.

v  Members of Agaricus are characterized by having a fleshy cap or pileus, from the underside of which grow a number of radiating plates or gills on which are produced the naked spores.

v  They are distinguished from other members of their family, Agaricaceae, by their chocolate-brown spores.

v  Members of Agaricus also have a stem or stipe, which elevates it above the object on which the mushroom grows, or substrate, and a partial veil, which protects the developing gills and later forms a ring or annulus on the stalk.

v  Several origins of Agaricus have been proposed; it possibly derives "from Agarica of Sarmatica, a district of Russia"

v  The genus contains the most widely consumed and best-known mushroom today, A. bisporus, with A. campestris also being well known. The most notable inedible species is the yellow-staining mushroom, A. xanthodermus. All three are found worldwide.

v  The genus contains the most widely consumed and best-known mushroom today, A. bisporus, with A. campestris also being well known. The most notable inedible species is the yellow-staining mushroom, A. xanthodermus. All three are found worldwide.